Natural Enemies and Antagonists of Entomopathogenic Nematodes

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Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp. nematodes and their respective symbiotic bacteria, Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus spp., are effective biological control agents used against various important soil insect pests. These nematodes have little or no negative effects on other non-target organisms and the environment. In their natural habitat (soil), entomopathogenic nematodes share similar niches with several organisms, such as collembolans, nematophagous fungi, mites and other nematodes, that eat or infect them or compete with them for the limited food source inside a shared host. These interactions may directly or indirectly affect nematode survival and persistence, and thus can reduce the efficacy of biological control programs that involve these nematodes.