Liberal–Illiberal Paradoxes in Türkiye’s Exceptional Citizenship Policy, 2016–2024

OpenAlex İngilizce

Since 2016, Türkiye has granted exceptional citizenship to displaced Syrians and international investors under Article 12 of Law No. 5901, creating two distinct pathways within a hybrid regime. Using theory-guided process tracing, this study analyzes 24 interviews, 48 parliamentary documents, and legal texts across three phases from 2016 to 2024. Findings show crisis-driven flexibility alongside ambiguity, with selection shaped by invitations, intermediaries, family bundling, and centralized discretion. Capital holders progressed more easily, while others faced delays and uncertainty. Social recognition remained uneven. The study advances a transferable framework of institutional bifurcation, centralized flexibility, and recognition deficit applicable beyond Türkiye.